Meningococcal disease

Meningococcal disease is caused by bacteria (germs) called meningococci, also known as Neisseria meningitidis. Although meningococcal disease is uncommon, it is a very serious disease. The infection can develop quickly and can cause serious illness or death. Children under five years of age and young adults aged 15 to 24 years are most at risk. Early diagnosis and treatment with antibiotics are vital.

Meningococci bacteria commonly cause:
Meningitis – infection of the membranes covering the brain and spinal cord
Septicaemia – infection in the bloodstream.

Both these infections are medical emergencies. If you think a person has symptoms that suggest meningitis or septicaemia, contact your doctor immediately, call triple zero (000) for an ambulance or go to the nearest hospital emergency department.

Most common in winter and spring
Meningococcal disease can occur all year round and in all age groups. However, it is more common during winter and early spring. In Victoria, the highest risk is in children under five years of age and young adults aged 15 to 24 years. About one-third of cases are in people 25 years of age or older.

Signs and symptoms – infants and young children
Signs and symptoms of meningococcal disease in infants and young children can include:

• Fever
• Refusing to take feeds
• Irritability, fretfulness
• Grunting or moaning
• Extreme tiredness or floppiness
• Dislike of being handled
• Nausea and/or vomiting
• Diarrhoea
• Turning away from light (photophobia)
• Drowsiness
• Convulsions or twitching
• Rash of red–purple pinprick spots or larger bruises.

Signs and symptoms – older children and adults
The signs and symptoms of meningococcal disease in older children and adults can include:

• Fever
• Headache
• Loss of appetite
• Neck stiffness
• Discomfort when looking at bright lights (photophobia)
• Nausea and/or vomiting
• Diarrhoea
• Aching or sore muscles
• Painful or swollen joints
• Difficulty walking
• General malaise
• Moaning, unintelligible speech
• Drowsiness
• Confusion
• Collapse
• Rash of red–purple pinprick spots or larger bruises.

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MRSA

MRSA stands for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. It causes an infection that is resistant to several common antibiotics. There are two types of infection. Hospital-associated MRSA happens to people in healthcare settings. Community-associated MRSA happens to people who have close skin-to-skin contact with others, such as athletes involved in football and wrestling.

Infection control is key to stopping MRSA in hospitals. To prevent community-associated MRSA

* Practice good hygiene
* Keep cuts and scrapes clean and covered with a bandage until healed
* Avoid contact with other people’s wounds or bandages
* Avoid sharing personal items, such as towels, washcloths, razors, or clothes
* Wash soiled sheets, towels and clothes in hot water with bleach and dry in a hot dryer

If a wound appears to be infected, see a healthcare provider. Treatment may include draining the infection and antibiotics.

Headache and eye problems

There are a variety of eye problems that can cause headache. In some cases, the headache is caused by the person squinting and overworking the eye muscles in an attempt to better focus their vision. In other cases, problems of internal pressure and swelling within the structures of the eye can ‘refer’ pain into other areas of the head. Difficulties with vision, such as blurring caused by long-sightedness, can be corrected with prescription glasses or contact lenses. Other disorders, such as glaucoma, need to be medically investigated and treated promptly. Once the cause of eyestrain is corrected, the associated headaches should ease.

The structure of the eye

The eye is our organ of vision. An image passes through its many layers and is focused on the back of the eye, called the retina. The retina contains light sensitive cells, called rods and cones. Information on shape, colour and pattern is picked up by the retina and carried to the brain via the optic nerve. The eye focuses images with two structures, the lens and the cornea. The lens is fine focus, while the cornea is fixed focus. The cornea is plumped up by a small chamber containing fluid called aqueous humour, while vitreous humour is the thick, jelly-like fluid that fills the main body of the eyeball and keeps it firm.

Refractive errors

The cornea and the lens work together to focus images on the retina at the back of the eye. Sometimes, this delicate interplay fails and the small muscles of the eye are forced to work harder. The result is tired, aching eyes, blurred vision and headache. Most conditions can be corrected with prescription glasses or contact lenses.

The main problems that cause eyestrain and associated headache include:

• Astigmatism - the cornea is not a regular shape, which means that objects look blurry from certain angles. A person with astigmatism tends to squint in order to better focus their vision, which can contribute to headache.
• Hyperopia - or long-sightedness. Instead of focusing the image squarely on the retina at the back of the eye, the image is focused to a point behind the eye.
• Presbyopia - the lens becomes hard and inflexible with age. The symptoms include difficulties in focusing closely, sore eyes, sluggish changes in focus when looking from one distance to another, and headache.

Glaucoma is a build-up of fluid

The eye disease glaucoma can cause severe headache in some cases. Intraocular pressure refers to the amount of pressure inside the eye exerted by the aqueous humour. Glaucoma is characterised by a build-up of aqueous humour, caused by insufficient drainage. The result is damage to the optic nerve. It is not possible to prevent glaucoma from developing, but early detection may help to curb its progression. The two main types of glaucoma include:

• Open angle glaucoma - the slow build-up of intraocular pressure over time; this type usually presents no symptoms.
• Angle closure glaucoma - the sharp increase in intraocular pressure results in severe pain, blurred vision, watering of the eyes, nausea and vomiting. This type of glaucoma attack needs prompt medical intervention.

How are cluster headaches treated?

The Cluster headaches can be very complicated to treat and it make take trial and error to find the specific treatment regimen that will work for each patient. Since the headache recurs daily, there are two treatment needs. The pain of the first episode needs to be controlled, and additional headaches need to be prevented.

Initial treatment options may include the following:

* Inhalation of high concentrations of oxygen (though this will not work if the headache is well established);

* injection of tryptan medications, for example, sumatriptan (Imitrex), zolmitriptan (Zomig), and rizatriptan (Maxalt) which are commonly used for migraine treatments as well;

* injection of lidocaine, a local anesthetic, into the nostril;

* dihydroergotamine (DHE, Migranal), a medication that causes blood vessels to constrict;

* caffeine

Preventative cluster headache treatment options may include the following:

* calcium channel blockers [for example, verapamil (Calan, Verelan, Verelan PM, Isoptin, Covera-HS), diltiazem (Cardizem, Dilacor, Tiazac)]

* prednisone (Deltasone, Liquid Pred)

* antidepressant medications

* lithium (Eskalith, Lithobid)

* valproic acid, divalproex (Depakote, Depakote ER, Depakene, Depacon), and topiramate (Topamax) (often used for seizure control)

Symptoms of headaches

The symptoms of tension headache are:

• A pain that begins in the back of the head and upper neck as a band-like tightness or pressure.
  


• Described as a band of pressure encircling the head with the most intense pain over the eyebrows.
  


• The pain is usually mild (not disabling) and bilateral (affecting both sides of the head).
  


• Not associated with an aura (see below) and are not associated with nausea, vomiting, or sensitivity to light and sound.
  


• Usually occur sporadically (infrequently and without a pattern) but can occur frequently and even daily in some people.
  


• Most people are able to function despite their tension headaches.
  

Symptoms of cluster headaches:

Cluster headaches are headaches that come in groups (clusters) lasting weeks or months, separated by pain-free periods of months or years.

• During the period in which the cluster headaches occur, pain typically occurs once or twice daily, but some patients may experience pain more than twice daily.
  


• Each episode of pain lasts from 30 minutes to an hour and a half.
  


• Attacks tend to occur at about the same time every day and often awaken the patient at night from a sound sleep.
  


• The pain typically is excruciating and located around or behind one eye.
  


• Some patients describe the pain as feeling like a hot poker in the eye. The affected eye may become red, inflamed, and watery.
  


• The nose on the affected side may become congested and runny.
  

Unlike patients with migraine headaches, patients with cluster headaches tend to be restless. They often pace the floor, bang their heads against a wall, and can be driven to desperate measures. Cluster headaches are much more common in males than females.

Headache Medication Guide

The accurate biological changes that arise with migraine, cluster, and tension headaches are not absolutely known. Medical research studies have shown that slightest one of the following factors is usually complicated:

1. Fluctuations in the amount of “neurotransmitters,” especially serotonin, circulating in the body. Neurotransmitters such as serotonin, nor epinephrine and dopamine are chemicals that special cells release to produce changes in your body. Inappropriate amounts of neurotransmitters can contribute to headaches, particularly chronic headache.

2. Inflammation around nerves and blood vessels in your head can result in pain.

3. In the past, medical experts thought that migraine was caused by blood vessel changes. When blood vessels enlarge (dilate), they can release irritating chemicals and physically stimulate surrounding nerves, both of which may lead to pain. We now know that blood vessel changes, though they do occur, are not the primary biological cause of migraine and other headaches.

4. Muscle tension previously was also viewed as the main cause of headaches. Today, we know that muscle tension can contribute to headaches but is not typically the main cause.

Most medications used in headache treatment are intended to help with at least one of the following:

1. Mimic serotonin effects
2. Maintain appropriate levels of your body’s own serotonin (or other neurotransmitters)
3. Limit inflammation
4. Stabilize blood vessels
5. Reduce muscle tension

Treatment of chronic headaches is often a challenging, long-term process. Though medications can provide benefits by themselves, they are usually more effective when combined with other therapies. These may include proper diet, stress management, adequate sleep, counseling and exercise.

Pain threshold

In a technical and medical literature the term pain threshold indicates the least stimulus which elicits pain (as reported by the subject) and is clearly differentiated from the term pain acceptance which indicates the degree of pain which a topic can tolerate before experiencing physical or emotional impairment and involves a measurement of a subject's response to pain. Compare this to absolute threshold, which is the lowest level of stimulus that is physiologically measurable.

Increased and decreased pain threshold

Pain threshold is frequently a function of how healthy the pain nerves and central pain processing pathways are, and of the chemical milieu in the tissues which the nociceptors innervate. It is commonly reduced by inflammation in the vicinity of nociceptors, such that normal touch becomes painful in the area of inflammation (allodynia). In such circumstances, the use of anti-inflammatory medications or physical therapies such as cooling or mild heat may return the nerve sensitivity or threshold to normal - it does not increase the threshold to above normal.

The use of morphine-like drugs does elevate the pain threshold (as well as pain tolerance). The same is true of a diverse number of other centrally acting analgesic drugs affecting pain relay neurons. Local physical techniques such as electrical stimulation, cooling or heat may temporarily increase the pain threshold.

However, short of damaging pain nerves - such as may occur in nerve injuries or neuropathies - the effects of interventions (pharmacological or physical) used to increase the pain threshold do not last much longer than the duration of their use. Additionally, in normal healthy persons, it is not significantly changed by any mental or physical practice or training. In contrast, pain tolerance may be increased by medications as well as by physical, cognitive and affective interventions and training.

Joint dislocation

Joint dislocation, or luxation (Latin: luxatio), occurs when bones in a joint become displaced or misaligned. It is often caused by a sudden impact to the joint. The ligaments always become damaged as a result of a dislocation. A subluxation is a partial dislocation.A dislocated joint can only be successfully 'reduced' into its normal position by a trained medical professional. Trying to reduce a joint without any training could result in making the injury substantially worse. X-rays are usually taken to confirm a diagnosis and detect any fractures which may also have occurred at the time of dislocation. A dislocation is easily seen on an X-ray. Once a diagnosis is confirmed, the joint is usually manipulated back into position.

This can be a very painful process, therefore this is typically done either in A&E under sedation or in an Operating Room under a General anaesthetic. It is important the joint is reduced as soon as possible, as in the state of dislocation, the blood supply to the joint (or distal anatomy) may be compromised. This is especially true in the case of a dislocated ankle, due to the anatomy of the blood supply to the foot. Shoulder injuries can also be surgically stabilized, depending on the severity, using arthroscopic surgery. Some joints are more at risk of becoming dislocated again after an initial injury. This is due to the weakening of the muscles and ligaments which hold the joint in place. The shoulder is a prime example of this. Any shoulder dislocation should be followed up with thorough physiotherapy. There are some medical conditions by where joint dislocations are frequent and spontaneous, such as Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome and Congenital Hip Dysplasia.

Mesothelioma

Mesothelioma

The tissue that lines your lungs, stomach, heart and other organs is called mesothelium. Mesothelioma is cancer of that tissue. It is a rare but serious type of cancer. It usually starts in the lungs, but can also start in the abdomen or other organs. Most people who develop mesothelioma have worked on jobs where they inhaled asbestos particles. It can take a long time - 30 to 50 years - between being around asbestos and getting the disease. Treatment includes surgery, radiation, chemotherapy or all three.

Asbestos is the name of a group of minerals with long, thin fibers. It was once used widely as insulation. It also occurs in the environment. Asbestos fibers are so small you can't see them. Disturbing asbestos can cause fibers to float in the air. When this happens, they are easy to inhale. You breathe out most fibers, but some become lodged in the lungs.

Mitral Valve Prolapse

Mitral valve prolapse (MVP) occurs when one of your heart's valves doesn't work properly. MVP is one of the more common heart valve conditions. Most often, it's a lifelong condition that a person is born with. Most people with MVP have no symptoms or problems, need no treatment, and are able to lead normal, active lives.

MVP puts you at risk for infective endocarditis, a kind of heart infection. To prevent it, doctors used to prescribe antibiotics before dental work or certain surgeries. Now, only people at high risk of endocarditis need the antibiotics.

If you need treatment for MVP, medicines can help relieve symptoms or prevent complications. Very few people will need surgery to repair or replace the mitral valve.

Symptoms And Prevention Of Skin Cancer

The Skin cancer

The skin is the body's largest organ. It protects against heat, light, injury, and infection. It helps control body temperature. It stores water and fat. The skin also makes vitamin D.

The skin has two main layers:

Epidermis: The epidermis is the top layer of the skin. It is mostly made of flat cells. These are squamous cells. Under the squamous cells in the deepest part of the epidermis are round cells called basal cells. Cells called melanocytes make the pigment (color) found in skin and are located in the lower part of the epidermis.

Dermis: The dermis is under the epidermis. It contains blood vessels, lymph vessels, and glands. Some of these glands make sweat, which helps cool the body. Other glands make sebum. Sebum is an oily substance that helps keep the skin from drying out. Sweat and sebum reach the surface of the skin through tiny openings called pores.


Prevention Of Skin Cancer

The best way to prevent skin cancer is to protect yourself from the sun. Also, protect children from an early age. Doctors suggest that people of all ages limit their time in the sun and avoid other sources of UV radiation:

It is best to stay out of the midday sun (from mid-morning to late afternoon) whenever you can. You also should protect yourself from UV radiation reflected by sand, water, snow, and ice. UV radiation can go through light clothing, windshields, windows, and clouds.
Wear long sleeves and long pants of tightly woven fabrics, a hat with a wide brim, and sunglasses that absorb UV.
Use sunscreen lotions. Sunscreen may help prevent skin cancer, especially broad-spectrum sunscreen (to filter UVB and UVA rays) with a sun protection factor (SPF) of at least 15. But you still need to avoid the sun and wear clothing to protect your skin.
Stay away from sunlamps and tanning booths.

Symptoms Of Skin Cancer

Most basal cell and squamous cell skin cancers can be cured if found and treated early.

A change on the skin is the most common sign of skin cancer. This may be a new growth, a sore that doesn't heal, or a change in an old growth. Not all skin cancers look the same. Skin changes to watch for:

Small, smooth, shiny, pale, or waxy lump

Firm, red lump

Sore or lump that bleeds or develops a crust or a scab

Flat red spot that is rough, dry, or scaly and may become itchy or tender

Red or brown patch that is rough and scaly

Sometimes skin cancer is painful, but usually it is not.

Checking your skin for new growths or other changes is a good idea. A guide for checking your skin is below. Keep in mind that changes are not a sure sign of skin cancer. Still, you should report any changes to your health care provider right away. You may need to see a dermatologist, a doctor who has special training in the diagnosis and treatment of skin problems.

Eye Allergies (Allergic Conjunctivitis)

Allergies: Allergy Conjunctivitis

Conjunctivitis is one of the most common and treatable eye conditions in children and adults. Often called "pink eye," it is an inflammation of the conjunctiva, the tissue that lines the inside of the eyelid and helps keep the eyelid and eyeball moist.

Viruses, bacteria, irritating substances (shampoo, dirt, smoke, pool chlorine), sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) or allergens (substances that cause allergies) can all cause conjunctivitis. Pink eye caused by bacteria, viruses or STDs can spread easily from person to person but is not a serious health risk if diagnosed promptly; allergic conjunctivitis is not contagious.

Allergic Conjunctivitis

It is important to find out whether your pink eye is caused by allergies or infection because each condition has different treatments. This article focuses on allergic conjunctivitis.
What Are the Symptoms of Allergic Conjunctivitis?

Symptoms of allergic conjunctivitis include:

* Redness in the white of the eye or inner eyelid
* Increased amount of tears
* Itchy eyes
* Blurred vision
* Swelling of the eyelid

See your ophthalmologist (a doctor and surgeon who is trained to treat eye conditions) optometrist (doctor trained to treat eye conditions) or family doctor if you have any of these persistent symptoms.

How Is Allergic Conjunctivitis Treated?

Allergy-associated conjunctivitis may disappear completely, either when the allergy is treated with antihistamines, or when the allergen is removed. Your doctor may recommend you use one or more of the following:

Ocular (topical) decongestants: These medicines reduce redness by constricting small blood vessels in the eye. They are not recommended for long-term use. Using these drops for more than a few days can actually worsen symptoms.

Ocular (topical) antihistamines: These medicines reduce redness, swelling and itching by blocking the actions of histamine, the chemical that causes these symptoms of allergy. They are available both over-the-counter and by prescription.

Ocular (topical) steroids: When other medicines fail, your doctor may prescribe steroid eye drops to relieve the symptoms of conjunctivitis. These must be used with the supervision of your doctor since they can cause elevated pressure inside of the eye, which can lead to vision damage. Your doctor also must check for viral eye infections, such as herpes, before optical steroids are used. These drops can also increase the risk of cataracts, clouding of the lens of the eye that can impair vision.

Cromolyn: This medicine works by preventing specialized cells from releasing histamine. It works best when started before symptoms occur.

Immunotherapy: Allergy shots can be effective for treating allergic conjunctivitis.

What Can I Do to Relieve Symptoms?

To relieve symptoms of allergic conjunctivitis:

Remove contact lenses, if you wear them.
Place cold compresses on your eyes.
Try nonprescription "artificial tears," a type of eye drop that may help relieve itching and burning (Note: Other types of eye drops may irritate the eyes and should not be used.) Do not use the same bottle of drops in the other eye if it is not affected.

The best defense against allergic conjunctivitis is a good offense: try to avoid substances that trigger your allergies.

Other Tips:

* Don't touch or rub the affected eye(s).
* Wash your hands often with soap and warm water.
* Wash your bed linens, pillowcases and towels in hot water and detergent to reduce allergens.
* Avoid wearing eye makeup.
* Don't share eye makeup with anyone else.
* Never wear another person's contact lens.
* Wear glasses instead of contact lenses to reduce irritation.
* Wash your hands before applying the eye drops or ointment to your eye or your child's eye.
* Do not use eye drops that were used in an infected eye in a non-infected eye.

Birth of Baby

ECG Scanning

An electrocardiogram (ECG) is a record of the electric activity of the heart. A standard ECG is produced by sensing electric potentials in six leads from the limbs and six leads from the chest.

Electric signals of the heart spread in all directions. However each standard lead can accurately represent only a small spatial sector around its axis (axes are shown as green arrows). When projected onto an imaginary sphere surrounding the heart, such a conic sector would look like a small circle or an oval.

When an ECG is taken, twelve standard ECG leads may produce normal tracings (gray ovals) while a pathologic focus (black spot) may remain unnoticed. This happens, because electric signals (red arrow) from the pathologic focus do not propagate along (are not collinear with) the axes of any of standard ECG leads and therefore their magnitude does not reach diagnostic thresholds to be properly detected. In such cases a correct diagnosis is missed.

Atrial Fibrillation

AF is the most common type of serious arrhythmia. It’s a very fast and irregular contraction of the atria. AF occurs when the heart’s electrical signal begins in a different part of the atrium than the sinoatrial (SA) node or when the signal is conducted abnormally. When this happens, the electrical signal doesn’t travel through the normal pathways in the atria, but instead may spread throughout the atria in a fast and disorganized manner. This causes the walls of the atria to quiver very fast (fibrillate) instead of beating normally.

AF and other supraventricular arrhythmias can occur for no apparent reason. Most of the time, however, they are caused by an underlying condition that damages the heart muscle and its ability to conduct electrical impulses. These conditions include high blood pressure (hypertension), coronary artery disease, heart failure, or rheumatic heart disease.

Other conditions also can lead to AF, including overactive thyroid gland (too much thyroid hormone produced) and heavy alcohol use. AF also becomes more common as people get older.

Melanoma

Melanoma is the most serious type of skin cancer. Often the first sign of melanoma is a change in the size, shape, color or feel of a mole. Most melanomas have a black or black-blue area. Melanoma may also appear as a new mole. It may be black, abnormal or "ugly looking."

Thinking of "ABCD" can help you remember what to watch for:

* Asymmetry - the shape of one half does not match the other
* Border - the edges are ragged, blurred or irregular
* Color - the color in uneven and may include shades of black, brown and tan
* Diameter - there is a change in size, usually an increase

Melanoma can be cured if it is diagnosed and treated early. If melanoma is not removed in its early stages, cancer cells may grow downward from the skin surface and invade healthy tissue. If it spreads to other parts of the body it can be difficult to control.

Healthcare

The term ‘healthcare communications’ describes a part of the marketing mix which is complementary to, but separate from sales, advertising and direct mail. There is a wide range of activities that will fall within the remit of healthcare communications. Broadly speaking these range from ‘public relations’ such as working with the media or disease awareness campaigns to ‘medical education’ such as clinical meetings, symposia and education resources for healthcare professionals.

Healthcare communications plays a part in most of the activities that support a drug through its lifecycle:

* Strategic planning
* Clinical trial recruitment
* KOL development
* Professional relations
* Product launches
* Conferences and symposia
* Data dissemination
* Disease awareness
* Issues and crisis management

Healthcare communications is a marriage of three areas: science; business and art. It is the combination of these three disciplines that often appeals to people and makes this career path a challenging and rewarding one.

Medical Device Safety

Medical devices include instruments, machines or implants used in medical care. Some, like X-ray machines or thermometers, diagnose diseases or conditions. Others, like pacemakers or inhalers, are used for prevention or treatment.

In the U.S., the government's Food and Drug Administration (FDA) must approve any device before it can be sold. The FDA also monitors safety for approved devices. If a device is defective or causes a health risk, the FDA can issue a recall.

If you use a medical device at home, make sure that you understand how to use it and follow the directions carefully.
The decision whether or not to dispose of a potentially contaminated medical device is usually made by the pharmacy owner in consultation with appropriate federal, state, and local authorities. In determining which medical devices should be discarded, the owner must assess each product’s current condition and potential safety risks. For additional information, see FDA advice about medical devices that have been exposed to unusual levels of heat and humidity.

Bones Grow

When you were a baby, you had tiny hands, tiny feet, and tiny everything! Slowly,as you grew older, everything became a bit bigger, including your bones.

A baby's body has about 300 bones at birth. These eventually fuseto form the 206 bones that adults have. Some of a baby's bones are made entirely of a special material called cartilage Other bones in a baby are partly made of cartilage. This cartilage is soft and flexible.

During childhood, as you are growing, the cartilage grows and is slowly replaced by bone, with help from calcium.

By the time you are about 25, this process will be complete. After this happens, there can be no more growth — the bones are as big as they will ever be. All of these bones make up a skeleton that is both very strong and very light.

Medicaid

Medicaid is government health insurance that helps many low-income people in the United States to pay their medical bills. Although the Federal government establishes general guidelines for the program, each state has its own rules. Your state might require you to pay a small part of the cost for some medical services.

You have to meet certain requirements to be eligible for Medicaid. These might involve

Your age

Whether you are pregnant, disabled or blind

Your income and resources

Whether or not you are a U.S. citizen or a lawfully admitted immigrant.

Measles

Measles is an infectious disease caused by a virus. It spreads easily from person to person. The main symptom of measles is an itchy skin rash. The rash often starts on the head and moves down the body. Other symptoms include

* Fever
* Cough
* Runny nose
* Conjunctivitis (pink eye)

Sometimes measles can lead to serious problems. There is no treatment for measles, but the measles-mumps-rubella (MMR) vaccine can prevent it. You may have heard of "German measles", also known as rubella, which is a different illness altogether.

Radiation Emergencies

Radiation is a type of energy. People are exposed to small amounts of radiation every day from sources such as sunlight. A radiation emergency would involve larger amounts of radiation and could be caused by

* Dirty bombs - a mix of explosives with radioactive powder
* Fallout from a nuclear bomb
* Accidental release from a nuclear reactor or a nuclear weapons plant.

A lot of radiation over a short period can cause burns or radiation sickness. If the exposure is large enough, it can cause premature aging or even death.

Although there are no guarantees of safety during a radiation emergency, you can take actions to protect yourself. You should have a disaster plan. Being prepared can help reduce fear, anxiety and losses.

Biodefense and Bioterrorism

Terrorism refers to the use or threat of force or violence against people or property. A bioterrorist attack releases viruses, bacteria, or other germs to cause illness or death. These biological agents are typically found in nature. But they can sometimes be made more harmful by increasing their ability to cause or spread disease, or to resist medical treatment.

Biological agents spread through the air, water or in food. They can be very hard to detect, and they don't cause illness for several hours or days. Some agents can also be spread from person to person. Scientists worry that anthrax, botulism, hemorrhagic fever viruses such as Ebola, plague, or smallpox could be used as biological agents.

Biodefense involves medical measures to protect people against biological agents. This means medicines and vaccinations. It also means medical research and preparations to defend against bioterrorist attacks.

Marijuana

Marijuana is a dry, shredded mix of flowers, stems, seeds and leaves of the hemp plant Cannabis sativa. People usually smoke it as a cigarette or in a pipe. It is the most commonly abused illegal drug in the United States.

Abusing marijuana can result in problems with memory, learning and social behavior. It can interfere with family, school, work and other activities.

Scientific studies are underway to test the safety and usefulness of cannabis compounds for treating certain medical conditions. Currently, smoking marijuana is not recommended for the treatment of any disease or condition.

Medicare

Medicare is the U.S. government's health insurance program for people age 65 or older. Certain people under age 65 can qualify for Medicare, too, including those with disabilities, permanent kidney failure or amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

Medicare helps with the cost of health care, but it does not cover all medical expenses or the cost of most long-term care. The program has four parts:

* Part A is hospital insurance.
* Part B helps pay for medical services that Part A doesn't cover.
* Part C is called Medicare Advantage. If you have Parts A and B, you can choose this option to receive all of your health care through a provider organization, like an HMO.
* Part D is prescription drug coverage. It helps pay for some medicines.